Business Simulation Exercise In The European Car Industry

Business Simulation Exercise In The European Car Industry The movement of pricing, vis-à  -vis the budgeted pricing is being considered next. It is seen that the budgeted pricing for A-Star was  £12,169.15 while that Plush was  £16,909.69. However over the next three periods, there have been fluctuations in the price movements as envisaged in Table 1 shown in Appendix. Thus over the period there has been an average of 6% increase in prices of A-Star and around 2% in that of Plush. These could be attributed to increases in material prices and labour which shall be taken up shortly. This could also be due to competitors increasing prices which have impacted on this business also. Forecast and Results: Production figures have been estimated at 1% of the 11.25 market share. The total market share and not the market shares as per individual age groups have been taken into account, primarily because city cars are preferred by all age groups and not restricted to any one age group. Round 1: Estimated Sales: This has been estimated by multiplying forecasted production with selling prices per unit; The Depreciation factor has not been considered, since for the first year, it is not necessary to consider cost of manufacturing fixed assets from selling prices. Bank Balance: The Companys financial strength is indicated by its bank balance. However, in this case it needs to be seen that bank balance needs to improve. Unsold stock: The question of any unsold stocks does not arise since all cars that were manufactured were sold out during the year. Gross Margin: No account of inflation has been considered during the first year of operations. Market Share: We have under produced the cars, when compared to other competitors, thus leading to lower market share. Round 2: Estimated Sales: 83% of A-Stars Production and 100% Plushs production has been fully sold out. Bank Balance: Excess of expenditure over incomes has resulted in negative bank balance. Adverse cash balance has necessitated infusion of fresh doze of bank loan. Unsold stock: There were unsold stocks of A-Star forming around 17% of production. It is hoped this would be sold during the next Round Gross Margin: the result for both was 21% but we estimated gross margin 25% for city car and 23% for medium car, so we were an unsold car for city car, which affected our gross margin actual results. Market Share: Market share needs to be improved by gaining better inroads into markets and increasing visibility and sale of cars. It could be through advertising campaigns. Forecast and Results 3: Pricing : We added two new options to care. This is to match options provided by competitors who were doing better business with these add-ons .There have been price increases in finished goods, since, due to the impact of inflation, wage bill has increased from  £425 to  £430. Production : Since there were aspects of unsold stocks, productions of cars were reduced this year although the numbers of workers were the same and the output was the same. However there was greater production. Gross Margins: : the result for city car was 25%and for medium car is 21%, but we estimated gross margin 29% for city car and 24% for medium car, so we were an unsold car for city car, which affected our gross margin actual results. Unsold stocks: Since our prices were relatively higher than that of our competitors, there were unsold stocks. Market share: All cars produced could not be sold because of high pricing. This also resulted in lower market share. Thus, selling prices needed to be brought at par with that of competitors. Sales: We increased the production, and since we produced more, we were able to sell more and gain better sales figures. Post Tax Profits: While production forecasts were lower than actual, the factory producton had not changed. Thus, more production of cars led to more materials and labour costs. Opening stocks were however not considered while calculating post tax profits. We sold lesser number of cars although we produced more, resulting in stocks, and also higher material costs. Results of Round 4: Sales: We redesigned the car options in order to remain in market- and reduced the selling prices of cars. This resulted in increase in the gross margins and medium size cars had a good market. Production: Factory output was at 60% Gross Margins: the result for city car was 15%and for medium car is 15%, but we estimated gross margin 24% for city car and 24% for medium car, so we were an unsold car for city car, which affected our gross margin actual results. Unsold Stocks: Competitors have better brand image, better market share and improved popularity Market Share: Similar to Round 3 Post Tax Profits: Error in calculating interest rates in current account and interest on loans. Summary of Financial Results : From a examination of Table 5 8 appendixed at the end of this study, it is evident that all is not going too smoothly for this auto making company. For one thing, its margins have been decreasing and even the Post Tax Profits are showing losses at the end of Round 4. This is all the more intriguing when one considers that there has been consistent increase in production over the Rounds. Thus, the most sensible thing for the company to do at this stage is to reduce production rationally and concentrate on producing only such products that are money spinners and could earn handsome profits for the company in latter years. There is no use of increasing inventory and carrying costs by producing cars that do not have a ready market, or in expectations of revenues that may not occur. Coming to market share, it may be seen that some aspects of this ratio are market driven and may not be controllable by the company. However, it is necessary that Sound Marketing Strategies need to be made that could address aspects of a sagging bottom line and reducing market share in competitive auto making markets. Non-financial results: Coming to the non-financial aspects, it is evidenced that the number of work force has increased from the initial 391 for A-Star and 475 for Plush, total of 866 employees according to the budgeted estimates. However the strength of the work force in the subsequent rounds is as shown in Table 2 in Appendix From the above, it is quite evident that there has been an excess use of work force as compared to the budgetary figures. Coming to capacity utilization while in the First and Second Round, there has been 100% capacity utilization, during the third round, it is just 65% of total. Regarding promotional activity expenses, it is evidenced that while the budgetary figure of  £60M have been maintained in the First and Second round, in the Third round this has increased to  £80M, an increase of  £20M. Present scenario in the car manufacturing scenario in Europe: It is also seen that, economic recession has severely affected the European car industry and therefore a clearer picture could only emerge if and when the recession fades away and the business economies are realised perhaps after 2010 or so. Over the past five years, there has been a slowdown in economic output across the EU. Weak growth has led to reduced consumer and business confidence. Industrial production, including the production of durable consumer goods, has declined. This has impacted severely on the car industry, given the cars status as the ultimate consumer and fashion item, as well as the importance of engineering and design in the manufacturing process. Average profit margins have declined from around 10% in the 1960s to less than 5% today, and some volume car makers are actually losing money. (EMCC Dossier on the European Automotive Industry, 2004). A business study of this kind needs to also consider economic and non-economic factors like rate of inflation, GDP, industry growth, taxation, availability of spares, etc. in order to be viable and competitive in global car markets. Segmentation and business opportunities in developing countries also needs to be seen as also the need for exploring exports in high growth areas. The non-economic factors like customer trends and preferences, road conditions and liking for the product are also major issues, especially when automakers are vying each other not only in technical competence but also in market sharing and target realization. Under such circumstances, costs, pricing, attitudes and selling stratagems all play crucial roles in determining the business opportunities and its future impact on business, especially in changing and volatile markets. The need for business projections and target setting in areas of production, sales, finance and human relations are crucial in the highly competitive auto making industry. Critical reflection on teachings: The teaching and the analyzing are interrelated they both find the guidance as the useful tool in the analysis and in the final conclusion. The learning can be successful only when the different traits and the complexities are understood properly by the guide and the knowledge can be proven beyond the boundaries. The critical reflection has the major role on the education and it is its major objective. The model of the critical reflection is shown which was put forward by meziro, for the explaining of the critical behaviour exhibited in Table 3 in Appendix The reflection is the analyzing or the forecasting of the future period by the decision making approach with the complicated and the interrelated schema. Learning as an important tool: The learning can be considered as an important tool for the analysis of the different departments in the business game and the various functions of the same. To analyze the proper functioning of the different departments are vital to know whether the business game is a success in the different trait and whether the departments suits the requirement. HR Department: The HR department is the one which deals with the people as the asset of the organization, the people related activities and the contribution by the people to the organization. It is the strategic approach to the goal settings and the functions of the management. In the study of the department is considered the strength of the employees were considered to be less than 1000, during the start up but by the growth of the company and by the innovation the strength of the employees has reached upto 4000.The study of the departments are considered by the employees turnover and the capacity of the production output by the employees in the organization. The loan facility that are acquired for the different operations and for the benefit of the employee. Professionalism of the Human Resource (HR) department is implied to be twofold implications. A professional HR practitioner has a collective professional role to play to enhance the HR occupation. (HR Department Professionalism: A Comparison Between the UK and Other European Countries, 2005). Operations Department: The operations department consists of the operations performed in the car industry, the operation starts from the purchase of the raw materials to the process and to the finished goods to the dispatching of the product is the duty of the operations department that has to be monitored. The different operation technique like the JIT and the six sigma process are done in for the efficiency of the operation department for the competitive advantage. Focused research studies that advance the theory and practice of operations management. OMR is a rigorous, double-blind peer-reviewed journal that is oriented toward fast reviews and publication of high-quality research that makes a clear contribution to the science and practice of operations management in todays global institutions. (Meredith and McMullen, n.d). Marketing department: The marketing department consists of the marketing of the manufactured cars to the customers with good promotion techniques and tactics like the offers to find the increased sales and the revenue. The main idea is to promote the product to the customer but the proper market analysis and the research has to be conducted to make the product a success.The qualitative and the quantitative research are to be conducted to have a thorough analysis for the same for finding out the demand for the product and the forecast about the market. Statistics provide traders with the detailed information needed to make focused decisions; only a complete market analysis can provide the story behind the numbers. (Market Analysis, 2010). Financial department: The financial department consists of the analysis of the financial data and the analysis of the cash flow and the fund flow of the company as the whole, the accounts personnel are to be hired as the financial controller where they have the ultimate control for the finance and the different kind of the financial aspects.The different pricing mechanism to be treated as the payback period to be made short and analysing of the different pricing ratios to be done,The fixed assets should be increased and the company turn over should be increased. The different tools are used for the analysis of the finance aspects. The commonly used ratios are the instant financial analysis, accounting ratios, and financial statement analysis tools, with industry ratios tools and accounting ratios. (My Business Analyst (MBA), 2010). If the game was played once more the performance can be improvised to much extend because the first game can lack the experience and the usage of the certain tools can be used more.The safety aspects can be considered more and the competitor analysis are to be done,The car industry can also go for the hybrid variety of cars in the industry as they are the common variety in demand ,the company also go for the variety of the alternative propulsion vehicle and electric vehicle which can add on the variety to the category of the brand. The completeness in the collection and the analysis may also have some of the inadequacy as a result of the lack of experience in the field. Business game is the practical tool to practice and understand business and its challenges, threats and opportunities. Business games help to identify oneself as the core part of the business and managing the situations. Regardless of the size of business you are in whether a large corporation, a small company, or even a home-based business effective communication skills are essential for success. (Improve your Communication Skills, 2010). The communication is very important in a business; It is the effectiveness in the company which contribute for the overall growth and the prospectus of the company and the smooth functioning of the different departments in the organization irrespective of the functions in the departments, The World of Business Communication: Every businesss aim is to gain profits. Whatever be the type of business you are in; the bottom line is that you must earn something from it. (The world of Business Communication, 2010). It is through the communication that the operations are handled effectively and efficiently. The business game is usually to improve the performance and to boost up the skills of selling, marketing and the operations. Theres a lot of confusion about team building event days. Often it is seen as an exercise to boost morale, to help workers bond better, and as a fun day out at the companys expense. (Rose, 2010). The additions for the improvement in the company are the guidance at the each of the steps for the avoiding of the mistakes and the error correction at the each level. The reference to the previous business game which are a success, The each step of the activities should be conducted in a team. The open discussion should be conducted in order to have various opinions regarding the business and the management and the brainstorming ideas from the team mates. It involves the activities to be conducted and the Free team building activities, exercises and ideas are for building teams and teamwork, corporate employee motivation, personal development, ice-breakers, energizers, and more serious learning and personal development. (Chapman, 2010). (References:The all round 1 and 3 and the graphs for the understanding of the companys performance). Team Performance: A critical evaluation of the performance of the team For every organization there will be a set of team responsible for particular activities within the organization. Team represents a set of people working together towards accomplishing a set of predetermined goals and objectives. Effective, productive teams of all types have a positive impact on bottom line results and organizational success. (Cornelius, 2006, p.1) The important works were allocated to these four members. These team members were Yi Jiang, Adnan Hasan, Shanu Jain and Fawaz Khalid Ansari. All these members have performed in such a way that this enabled the organization to achieve it goals. They altogether took the decisions related to the various operational areas. The functions allocated to each member and their roles being in a team are explained as follows; Yi Jiang  was responsible for look after the marketing department. His duty was to design the marketing research programs and to give instructions and appropriate guidance to his team members. He used to prepare slides for presentation in the team. After conducting marketing research he decides the promotion strategy that has to be implemented for their product to become successful in the market. He was having a clear idea about the European market conditions and based on those ideas he gave appropriate suggestions related to the production quantity and the percentage of market share that has to be captured by the company. He was the person who gave the idea to produce city and medium sized cars. He helped me in the operations department by deciding the quantity of products that has to be produced by the company. The company was having huge stock that was not sold in both the second and the third round. This was a great problem for the company. For solving this problem he provided an excellent idea to redesign the car. This was decided in the fourth round and the result was outstanding. Adnan Hasan was responsible to manage the finance department. He was responsible to handle all the financial operations of the company in all departments specifically the accounts department. Deciding the finance required for each activity is not an easy task and he was much capable person to give all financial instructions to the company. He has helped the operations department by stating the quantity to be produced by the firm and also provided the accurate number of human resources required for the operations department. Shanu Jain was responsible to look after the human resource department within the organization. She is a person who is very talented and highly committed towards the work. She was responsible to conduct the meetings within the organization. She prepared the agenda and the minutes of the meeting conducted between the team members from all the departments. Inorder to smoothen the team work a team charter was created by Shanu Jain Date Attendance Discussion 17-11-2009 100% Decision related to market segment and selected the design and options. 18-11-2009 100% Decision related to pricing of cars. 20-11-2009 100% Estimating the production units and sales value. 22-11-2009 100% Forecasting the profit and the cash flow and designing decision form. NX0441 Managing for Sustainable Competitive Advantage In the second round she found that the productivity of the employees has been reduced and for solving that problem she suggested to increase the wages of the worker. This resulted in an increase in the productivity among the employees and it was found in the following rounds.. The last key member is Fawaz Khalid Ansari and that is me. I was the team leader for the operation department and i was responsible to handle the operations department within the organization since I am a mechanical engineering graduate. I took the decisions related to the quantity of output to be produced by the company. I gave my complete effort to give my best to the team and thereby to the organization. With my available knowledge about the cars and the latest trends in the European market I helped the marketing department to understand the consumer behaviour with respect to the car market. I also helped my team, members to create excellent designs for the cars. I suggested an idea to purchase a single factory and give the maximum from it. As a key team member in the organization I took the decision to produce less at the first stage and this was a great help for the firm, because till round 2 the company was having many stocks that were not sold. All the activities that have to be performed by each team members are prepared in a chart and it is termed as team charter. Every team will have a particular charter and it will be in a written format. The charter typically includes a statement of mission, objectives or statement of work; background; authority, boundary conditions (scope, constraints, resources, and schedule); membership; high-level requirements or specifications, and interface responsibilities. (Project Management Training and Resources: Team Charter, 2009). I realised that the team work increases the level of motivation. This encourages members to work hard for the benefit of the team and the team is motivated because its members get their emotional and intellectual needs met by the team. (Working in Teams, 2010). The most important benefit for all the team members is that they will realise the value of a group work. In a teamwork environment, people understand and believe that thinking, planning, decisions and actions are better when done cooperatively. People recognize, and even assimilate, the belief that none of us is as good as all of us.  (Heathfield, 2010). All the decisions that are taken with respect to each department within the organization have its own significance in achieving the target of the organization. Conclusion: This is a business management game where the team members are asked to select and start a business and they have to sell the product. Various discussions have been held at different levels. It was able to learn a lot of things from this work. The participation of the team members towards a common goal was the major attraction of this game. From this game it was also able to understand how a team is working towards the predetermined goal for achieving the organizational goal. The important objective of the team members was to increase the value of the shareholder. For accomplishing this objective the team has listed out various steps that have to be followed. There is a team leader who is responsible to guide all the performance that is performed by the other team members.

David Malouf explores the emotional and physical struggle Essay

David Malouf explores the emotional and physical struggle a hero must face before attaining glory. Evaluate this statement. In your response discuss how two characters are represented as heroic through their quest. Heroism is a valued concept that has transcended through time and has been the subject of a great deal of literature. David Malouf’s appropriation of Homers epic The Iliad explores this notion of heroism through the characterization of King Priam, directly battling the contextual hero of the time, Achilles. Through descriptive language and stylistic conventions, Malouf showcases that it is the emotional and physical struggle that a man must face to ultimately attain glory, thus becoming a hero. This statement is epitomized through the contrasting protagonists Priam and Achilles, who are both sequentially transformed through their metaphysical journey. Malouf has deliberately structured his text in separate books, to take the readers on a journey, mapping their path to glory whilst teaching us the importance of the ordinary hero. Classically, a hero demonstrates qualities of endurance, bravery and physical prowess, epitomized by Achilles at the start of the novel. Malouf initially celebrates Achilles as a hero, being â€Å"blessed† by the Gods with supernatural abilities and a â€Å"brooding presence†, which intimidates the entire Trojan army. However, while Achilles’s training and apparent destiny is to attain glory and die â€Å"a hero’s death†, Malouf soon reveals his dissatisfaction and emotional struggle with his current disposition. In the context of Patroclus’s death and loss of family Achilles’s thumos overwhelms him, this grief accentuated through the repetition of â€Å"wept†. His killing of Hector sets his spirit â€Å"off on its own downward path† a metaphor portraying the similar downward path he experiences at this part of his journey. This search for salvation leads him to drag the body of Hector around the walls of Troy, juxtaposing his former honour, â€Å"He is their leader, but he breaks daily every rule they have been taught to live by†. Malouf manifests the struggle of Achilles and portrays his negative spiritual journey through the exploration of dark imagery, articulating upon his soul’s â€Å"corruption†, surrender to a â€Å"darker agency† and being caught in a metaphorical â€Å"clogging grey web†. Although Achilles can be considered a hero, these human traits highlight his flaws leading to a metaphysical struggle within himself, which gives Malouf scope to further develop his journey of self-discovery. This journey of struggle takes him from a grief stricken avenger to compassionate father/man/hero. Achilles is a lost hero at the end of book 1â€Å"waiting for the break†, waiting for â€Å"something† to â€Å"Break the spell† that is on him. Within Book 4 Malouf delivers Achilles’s salvation in the form of King Priam. It is here Priam implements a metaphysical journey upon Achilles, forcing him to look inward from the fatherly figures point of view, his regret captured through the metaphor â€Å"a great wave of sadness† passed by. Malouf depicts Achilles’s transformation through the imagery of â€Å"the ice cracks†, conveying the mutual understanding shared, as Achilles accepts Hector’s â€Å"honorable death† for the first time. Achilles learns a compassion for the enemy, clearing his â€Å"heart of the smoky poison† and continuing the water motif with â€Å"a cleansing emotion†¦flooded through† leaving behind his guilt and struggle. Malouf epitomizes the transformation through describing Achilles with a â€Å"lightness† which is in direct juxtaposition of the earlier dark imagery. It is clear that Achilles has been forever enlightened by Priam’s appeal, finding a â€Å"balance† between his conflicting dual nature. Malouf ends this quest as Achilles regains his warrior status and developed the absent qualities of integrity, compassion and honour â€Å"in the very breath of the gods, of the true Achilles, the one he has come all this way to find†. This quote further integrates the epic convention of the god’s intervention, undermining Iris’s initial â€Å"concept of chance† developing the theme of destiny. Through changing the perspective of the book from Achilles to Priam, Malouf is able to encapsulate the quest and transformation from king to man. Hector’s death acts as a catalyst, sparking the old king to leave his golden cage. In this claustrophobic setting, Priam instinctively feels denied true companionship with his fellow man. This is amplified through the shallowness of the relationship he and his son shared, which is felt all the more acutely in the context of Hector’s death. Priam, through an epiphany brought upon by the gods decides to break free, envisioning â€Å"himself †¦ dressed in a plain white robe without ornament† into Archilles camp to ransom the and bring home the body of his son. This vision has elements of the heroic, in risking his life, and undertaking what has â€Å"never been done before† in the annals of Troy. When convincing his family of the proposition to ransom Hector, Priam’s argument is reinforced through the repetition of â€Å"I believe†. It is Priam’s journey that transforms his life from the artificial â€Å"kingly sphere† to one attaining real feelings and emotion. Books 2 and 3 change the perspective from Achilles to Priam, where Malouf encapsulates Priam’s quest from king to man. Hector’s death acts as a catalyst, sparking Priam to transform from his passive and â€Å"symbolic† role of king to a man feeling â€Å"bold† and â€Å"defiant†. Tiring of his life of isolation, Priam’s epiphany of â€Å"himself †¦ dressed in a plain white robe without ornament† heading into Archilles camp to ransom the body of his son is heroic. It challenges all convention, contains high ideals and involves risk of life, a quest of glory. Priam must first struggle with his wife, then his children and councilors â€Å"you expect that jackal†¦ to be moved by this touching pantomine? † rhetorical questioning emphasizing yet again the constraints of his kingly realm. The introduction of Somax as the metaphor of the ordinary man allows Priam to reconnect with basic values such as â€Å"interest† and â€Å"curiosity†. This relationship is an essential part of Priam’s journey, as he gains an understanding of the â€Å"outside world† developing into a real man and father. Malouf uses simile and irony when comparing Priam to a â€Å"toddler† as he is the king yet Somax is the adult in the relationship. By making Priam the child, Malouf demon`strates how far Priam must travel in his journey of self-discovery. Within book 4 the climax of Priam’s journey takes place, as he confronts the murderer of his son. From the very moment he enters the Greek camp the gods clearly support Priam, as the portal gate was moved by some â€Å"invisible agency†. This epic convention is further developed by Malouf as Priam’s sudden ability to speak well becomes a strength â€Å"Would your father†¦not do the same for you? † appealing to Achilles’s humanity through rhetorical questioning. Here Priam’s physical and emotional strength shines through, as the final product of his heroic quest has been developed â€Å"I have come to you†¦man to man†¦for the body of my son† epitomizing his newfound endurance, bravery and compassion. Through the mutual bond of fatherhood the reader observes Priam’s transformation from a â€Å"child† to a man able to leave the great Achilles begging â€Å"No more! Please! † Malouf takes Priam on an emotional and physical struggle, who ultimately attains glory through reducing himself into the ordinary man â€Å"the I is different†¦I come as a man of sorrow†¦ but also as a hero of a deed that†¦ was never attempted. † that he himself can recognize through successfully ransoming the body of his son Hector. Priam exemplifies humility when meeting Achilles, using the strength from the gods to aid him on his noble pursuit. Now Priam must struggle with not just his emotions: he must remain strong against the physical fear of losing his life. He makes his appeal and â€Å"closes his eyes. Now he thinks, now they will strike†. Here Priam’s physical and emotional strength shines through. He is an old man, he has traveled far, he faces death at the hands of the ultimate warrior. He has braved these physical challenges while keeping a cool nerve and winning Achilles over with his simple manly dignity. Q1 Hero heroic journey Heroic qualities, how they are highlighted Literary techniques Language in an evocative manner Simple/Direct Shifts in point of view Clear images of characters Structure chronologically Malouf remains faithful to Homers Book 24 through allowing the gods to intervene in the affairs of human undermining the god Iris, showcasing that the concept of â€Å"chance† was Achilles could never have dreamt that the special something would come to him in the form of plainly dressed King Priam, Malouf is clearly faithful to Homers book 24, drawing upon similar epic conventions when delving into Priam’s quest of self-discovery, implementing the feeble old king to effectively challenge the depiction of heroes. Malouf is clearly faithful to Homers book 24, drawing upon similar epic conventions when delving into Priam’s quest for glory, effectively challenging the depiction of heroes. The idea of glory is explored in depth in the novel Ransom. It is clear from the novel that the concept of â€Å"attaining glory† is subjective. Glory could be a high level of reknown peers, or in the case of Priam and Achilles achieving honour that they themselves can recognize.

3 D Optical Storage

3-D OPTICAL DATA STORAGE TECHNOLOGY * *ABSTRACT 3D optical data storage is the term given to any form of optical data storage in which information can be recorded and/or read with three dimensional resolution (as opposed to the two dimensional resolution afforded, for example, by CD). Current optical data storage media, such as the CD and DVD store data as a series of reflective marks on an internal surface of a disc. In order to increase storage capacity, it is possible for discs to hold two or even more of these data layers, but their number is severely limited since the addressing laser interacts with every layer that it passes through on the way to and from the addressed layer. These interactions cause noise that limits the technology to approximately 10 layers. 3D optical data storage methods circumvent this issue by using addressing methods where only the specifically addressed voxel (volumetric pixel) interacts substantially with the addressing light. This necessarily involves nonlinear data reading and writing methods, in particular non linear optics. 3D optical data storage is related to (and competes with) holographic data storage. Traditional examples of holographic storage do not address in the third dimension, and are therefore not strictly â€Å"3D†, but more recently 3D holographic storage has been realized by the use of microholograms. Layer-selection multilayer technology (where a multilayer disc has layers that can be individually activated e. g. electrically) is also closely related. This innovation has the potential to provide terabyte-level mass storage on DVD-sized disks. Data recording and readback are achieved by focusing lasers within the medium. However, because of the volumetric nature of the data structure, the laser light must travel through other data points before it reaches the point where reading or recording is desired. Therefore, some kind of nonlinearity is required to ensure that these other data points do not interfere with the addressing of the desired point. 1. Overview: Current optical data storage media, such as the CD and DVD store data as a series of reflective marks on an internal surface of a disc. In order to increase storage capacity, it is possible for discs to hold two or even more f these data layers, but their number is severely limited since the addressing laser interacts with every layer that it passes through on the way to and from the addressed layer. These interactions cause noise that limits the technology to approximately 10 layers. 3D optical data storage methods circumvent this issue by using addressing methods w here only the specifically addressed voxel (volumetric pixel) interacts substantially with the addressing light. This necessarily involves nonlinear data reading and writing methods, in particular nonlinear optics. 3D optical data storage is related to (and competes with) holographic data storage. Traditional examples of holographic storage do not address in the third dimension, and are therefore not strictly â€Å"3D†, but more recently 3D holographic storage has been realized by the use of microholograms. Layer-selection multilayer technology (where a multilayer disc has layers that can be individually activated e. g. electrically) is also closely related. Schematic representation of a cross-section through a 3D optical storage disc (yellow) along a data track (orange marks). Four data layers are seen, with the laser currently addressing the third from the top. The laser passes through the first two layers and only interacts with the third, since here the light is at a high intensity. As an example, a prototypical 3D optical data storage system may use a disk that looks much like a transparent DVD. The disc contains many layers of information, each at a different depth in the media and each consisting of a DVD-like spiral track. In order to record information on the disc a laser is brought to a focus at a particular depth in the media that corresponds to a particular information layer. When the laser is turned on it causes a photochemical change in the media. As the disc spins and the read/write head moves along a radius, the layer is written just as a DVD-R is written. The depth of the focus may then be changed and another entirely different layer of information written. The distance between layers may be 5 to 100 micrometers, allowing >100 layers of information to be stored on a single disc. In order to read the data back (in this example), a similar procedure is used except this time instead of causing a photochemical change in the media the laser causes fluorescence. This is achieved e. g. by using a lower laser power or a different laser wavelength. The intensity or wavelength of the fluorescence is different depending on whether the media has been written at that point, and so by measuring the emitted light the data is read. It should be noted that the size of individual chromophore molecules or photoactive color centers is much smaller than the size of the laser focus (which is determined by the diffraction limit). The light therefore addresses a large number (possibly even 109) of molecules at any one time, so the medium acts as a homogeneous mass rather than a matrix structured by the positions of chromophores. 2. History: The origins of the field date back to the 1950s, when Yehuda Hirshberg developed the photochromic spiropyrans and suggested their use in data storage. [3] In the 1970s, Valeri Barachevskii demonstrated that this photochromism could be produced by two-photon excitation, and finally at the end of the 1980s Peter T. Rentzepis showed that this could lead to three-dimensional data storage. [5] This proof-of-concept system stimulated a great deal of research and development, and in the following decades many academic and commercial groups have worked on 3D optical data storage products and technologies. Most of the developed systems are based to some extent on the original ideas of Rentzepis. A wide range of physical phenomena for data reading and recording have been investigated, large numbers of chemical systems for the medium have been developed and evaluated, and extensive work has been carried out in solving the problems associated with the optical systems required for the reading and recording of data. Currently, several groups remain working on solutions with various levels of development and interest in commercialization. *3. Processes for creating written data*: Data recording in a 3D optical storage medium requires that a change take place in the medium upon excitation. This change is generally a photochemical reaction of some sort, although other possibilities exist. Chemical reactions that have been investigated include photoisomerizations, photodecompositions and photobleaching, and polymerization initiation. Most investigated have been photochromic compounds, which include azobenzenes, spiropyrans, stilbenes, fulgides and diarylethenes. If the photochemical change is reversible, then rewritable data storage may be achieved, at least n principle. Also, multilevel recording, where data is written in ‘grayscale’ rather than as ‘on’ and ‘off’ signals, is technically feasible. 3. 1 Writing by non*-*resonant multiphoton absorption Although there are many nonlinear optical phenomena, only multiphoton absorption is capable of injecting into the media the significant energy required to electronically excite molecular species and cause chemical reactions. Two-photon absorption is the strongest multiphoton absorbance by far, but still it is a very weak phenomenon, leading to low media sensitivity. Therefore, much research has been directed at providing chromophores with high two-photon absorption cross-sections. Two photon absorption (TPA) is the simultaneous absorption of two photons of identical or different frequencies in order to excite a molecule from one state (usually the ground state) to a higher energy electronic state. The energy difference between the involved lower and upper states of the molecule is equal to the sum of the energies of the two photons. Two-photon absorption is a second-order processes several orders of magnitude weaker than linear absorption. It differs from linear absorption in that the strength of absorption depends on the square of the light intensity, thus it is a nonlinear optical process Writing by 2-photon absorption can be achieved by focusing the writing laser on the point where the photochemical writing process is required. The wavelength of the writing laser is chosen such that it is not linearly absorbed by the medium, and therefore it does not interact with the medium except at the focal point. At the focal point 2-photon absorption becomes significant, because it is a nonlinear process dependent on the square of the laser fluence. Writing by 2-photon absorption can also be achieved by the action of two lasers in coincidence. This method is typically used to achieve the parallel writing of information at once. One laser passes through the media, defining a line or plane. The second laser is then directed at the points on that line or plane that writing is desired. The coincidence of the lasers at these points excited 2-photon absorption, leading to writing photochemistry. 3. 2 Writing by sequential multiphoton absorption Another approach to improving media sensitivity has been to employ resonant wo-photon absorption (also known as â€Å"1+1† or â€Å"sequential† 2-photon absorbance). Nonresonant two-photon absorption (as is generally used) is weak since in order for excitation to take place, the two exciting photons must arrive at the chromophore at almost exactly the same time. This is because the chromophore is unable to interact with a single photon alone. However, if the chromophore has an ene rgy level corresponding to the (weak) absorption of one photon then this may be used as a stepping stone, allowing more freedom in the arrival time of photons and therefore a much higher sensitivity. However, this approach results in a loss of nonlinearity compared to nonresonant 2-photon absorbance (since each 1-photon absorption step is essentially linear), and therefore risks compromising the 3D resolution of the system. 3. 3 Microholography In microholography, focused beams of light are used to record submicrometre-sized holograms in a photorefractive material, usually by the use of collinear beams. The writing process may use the same kinds of media that are used in other types of holographic data storage, and may use 2-photon processes to form the holograms. . 4 Data recording during manufacturing Data may also be created in the manufacturing of the media, as is the case with most optical disc formats for commercial data distribution. In this case, the user cannot write to the disc – it is a ROM format. Data may be written by a nonlinear optical method, but in this case the use of very high power lasers is acceptable so media sensitivity becomes less of an issue. The fabrication of discs containing data molded or printed into their 3D structure has also been demonstrated. For example, a disc containing data in 3D may be constructed by sandwiching together a large number of wafer-thin discs, each of which is molded or printed with a single layer of information. The resulting ROM disc can then be read using a 3D reading method. 3. 5 Other approaches to writing Other techniques for writing data in three-dimensions have also been examined, including: Persistent *spectral** **hole burning* (PSHB), which also allows the possibility of spectral multiplexing to increase data density. However, PSHB media currently requires extremely low temperatures to be maintained in order to avoid data loss. Void* formation, where microscopic bubbles are introduced into a media by high intensity laser irradiation. [7] Chromophore poling, where the laser-induced reorientation of chromophores in the media structure leads to readable changes. *4. Processes for reading data*: The reading of data from 3D optical memories has been carried out in many different ways. While some of these rely on the nonlinearity of the light-matter interaction to obtain 3D resolution, others use methods that spatially filter the media's linear response. Reading methods include: Two photon absorption (resulting in either absorption or fluorescence). This method is essentially two-photon-microscopy. Linear excitation of fluorescence with confocal detection. This method is essentially confocal laser scanning microscopy. It offers excitation with much lower laser powers than does two-photon absorbance, but has some potential problems because the addressing light interacts with many other data points in addition to the one being addressed. Measurement of small differences in the refractive index between the two data states. This method usually employs a phase contrast microscope or confocal reflection microscope. No absorption of light is necessary, so there is no risk of damaging data while reading, but the required refractive index mismatch in the disc may limit the thickness (i. e. number of data layers) that the media can reach due to the accumulated random wavefront errors that destroy the focused spot quality. Second harmonic generation has been demonstrated as a method to read data written into a poled polymer matrix. Optical coherence tomography has also been demonstrated as a parallel reading method. *5. Media *design: The active part of 3D optical storage media is usually an organic polymer either doped or grafted with the photochemically active species. Alternatively, crystalline and sol-gel materials have been used. 5. 1 Media form factor Media for 3D optical data storage have been suggested in several form factors: Disc. A disc media offers a progression from CD/DVD, and allows reading and writing to be carried out by the familiar spinning disc method. Card. A credit card form factor media is attractive from the point of view of portability and convenience, but would be of a lower capacity than a disc. Crystal, Cube or Sphere. Several science fiction writers have suggested small solids that store massive amounts of information, and at least in principle this could be achieved with 3D optical data storage. 5. 2 Media manufacturing The simplest method of manufacturing – the molding of a disk in one piece – is a possibility for some systems. A more complex method of media manufacturing is for the media to be constructed layer by layer. This is required if the data is to be physically created during manufacture. However, layer-by-layer construction need not mean the sandwiching of many layers together. Another alternative is to create the medium in a form analogous to a roll of adhesive tape. *6. Drive design*: A drive designed to read and write to 3D optical data storage media may have a lot in common with CD/DVD drives, particularly if the form factor and data structure of the media is similar to that of CD or DVD. However, there are a number of notable differences that must be taken into account when designing such a drive, including: Laser. Particularly when 2-photon absorption is utilized, high-powered lasers may be required that can be bulky, difficult to cool, and pose safety concerns. Existing optical drives utilize continuous wave diode lasers operating at 780 nm, 658 nm, or 405 nm. 3D optical storage drives may require solid-state lasers or pulsed lasers, and several examples use wavelengths easily available by these technologies, such as 532 nm (green). These larger lasers can be difficult to integrate into the read/write head of the optical drive. Variable spherical aberration correction. Because the system must address different depths in the medium, and at different depths the spherical aberration induced in the wavefront is different, a method is required to dynamically account for these differences. Many possible methods exist that include optical elements that swap in and out of the optical path, moving elements, adaptive optics, and immersion lenses. Optical system. In many examples of 3D optical data storage systems, several wavelengths (colors) of light are used (e. g. eading laser, writing laser, signal; sometimes even two lasers are required just for writing). Therefore, as well as coping with the high laser power and variable spherical aberration, the optical system must combine and separate these different colors of light as required. Detection. In DVD drives, the signal produced from the disc is a reflection of the addressing laser beam, and is therefore very intense. For 3D optical storage however, the signal mus t be generated within the tiny volume that is addressed, and therefore it is much weaker than the laser light. In addition, fluorescence is radiated in all directions from the addressed point, so special light collection optics must be used to maximize the signal. Data tracking. Once they are identified along the z-axis, individual layers of DVD-like data may be accessed and tracked in similar ways to DVD discs. The possibility of using parallel or page-based addressing has also been demonstrated. This allows much faster data transfer rates, but requires the additional complexity of spatial light modulators, signal imaging, more powerful lasers, and more complex data handling. *7. Development issues*: Despite the highly attractive nature of 3D optical data storage, the development of commercial products has taken a significant length of time. This results from limited financial backing in the field, as well as technical issues, including: Destructive reading. Since both the reading and the writing of data are carried out with laser beams, there is a potential for the reading process to cause a small amount of writing. In this case, the repeated reading of data may eventually serve to erase it (this also happens in phase change materials used in some DVDs). This issue has been addressed by many approaches, such as the use of different absorption bands for each process (reading and writing), or the use of a reading method that does not involve the absorption of energy. Thermodynamic stability. Many chemical reactions that appear not to take place in fact happen very slowly. In addition, many reactions that appear to have happened can slowly reverse themselves. Since most 3D media are based on chemical reactions, there is therefore a risk that either the unwritten points will slowly become written or that the written points will slowly revert to being unwritten. This issue is particularly serious for the spiropyrans, but extensive research was conducted to find more stable chromophores for 3D memories. Media sensitivity. 2-photon absorption is a weak phenomenon, and therefore high power lasers are usually required to produce it. Researchers typically use Ti-sapphire lasers or Nd:YAG lasers to achieve excitation, but these instruments are not suitable for use in consumer products. *8. Academic development*: Much of the development of 3D optical data storage has been carried out in universities. The groups that have provided valuable input include: Peter T. Rentzepis was the originator of this field, and has recently developed materials free from destructive readout. *Watt W. Webb* co developed the two-photon microscope in Bell Labs, and showed 3D recording on photorefractive media. Masahiro Irie developed the diarylethene family of photochromic materials. [13] Yoshimasa Kawata, *Satoshi Kawata* and Zouheir Sekkat have developed and worked on several optical data manipulation systems, in particular involving poled polymer systems. 14] Kevin C Belfield is developing photochemical systems for 3D optical data storage by the use of resonance energy transfer between molecules, and also develops high 2-photon cross-section materials. Seth Marder performed much of the early work developing logical approaches to the molecular design of high 2-photon cross-section chromophores. Tom Milster has made many contributions to the theory of 3D optical data storage. Robert McLeod has examine d the use of microholograms for 3D optical data storage. Min Gu has examined confocal readout and methods for its enhancement. 9 Commercial development*: In addition to the academic research, several companies have been set up to commercialize 3D optical data storage and some large corporations have also shown an interest in the technology. However, it is not yet clear whether the technology will ever come to market in the presence of competition from other quarters such as hard drives, flash storage, holographic storage and internet-based storage. Examples of 3D optical data storage media. Top row – Written Call/Recall media; Mempile media. Middle row – FMD; D-Data DMD and drive. Bottom row – Landauer media; Microholas media in action. Call/Recall was founded in 1987 on the basis of Peter Rentzepis' research. Using 2-photon recording (at 25 Mbit/s with 6. 5 ps, 7 nJ, 532 nm pulses), 1-photon readout (with 635 nm), and a high NA (1. 0) immersion lens, they have stored 1 TB as 200 layers in a 1. 2 mm thick disk. [23] They aim to improve capacity to >5 TB and data rates to up to 250 Mbit/s within a year, by developing new materials as well as high-powered pulsed blue laser diodes. Mempile are developing a commercial system with the name TeraDisc. In March 2007, they demonstrated the recording and readback of 100 layers of information on a 0. mm thick disc, as well as low crosstalk, high sensitivity, and thermodynamic stability. [25] They intend to release a red-laser 0. 6-1. 0 TB consumer product in 2010, and have a roadmap to a 5 TB blue-laser product. [26] *Constellation 3D* developed the Fluorescent Multilayer Disc at the end of the 1990s, which was a ROM disk, manufactured layer by layer. The company failed in 200 2, but the intellectual property (IP) was acquired by D-Data Inc. who are attempting to introduce it as the Digital Multilayer Disk (DMD). Storex Technologies has been set up to develop 3D media based on fluorescent photosensitive glasses and glass-ceramic materials. The technology derives from the patents of the Romanian scientist Eugen Pavel, who is also the founder and CEO of the company. First results, 40 nm marks recorded into 3D virtual layers separated by 700 nm, were presented in October 2009 at the ISOM2009 conference. Landauer inc. are developing a media based on resonant 2-photon absorption in a sapphire single crystal substrate. In May 2007, they showed the recording of 20 layers of data using 2 nJ of laser energy (405 nm) for each mark. The reading rate is limited to 10 Mbit/s because of the fluorescence lifetime. Colossal Storage aim to develop a 3D holographic optical storage technology based on photon induced electric field poling using a far UV laser to obtain large improvements over current data capacity and transfer rates, but as yet they have not presented any experimental research or feasibility study. Microholas operates out of the University of Berlin, under the leadership of Prof Susanna Orlic, and has achieved the recording of up to 75 layers of microholographic data, separated by 4. micrometres, and suggesting a data density of 10 GB per layer. [33] 3DCD Technology Pty. Ltd. is a university spin-off set up to develop 3D optical storage technology based on materials identified by Daniel Day and Min Gu. Several large technology companies such as Fuji, Ricoh and Matsushita have applied for patents on 2-photon-responsive materials for applications including 3D optical data storage, however they have not giv en any indication that they are developing full data storage solutions.

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